Unit 49: Composing using music technology

Compositional Skills

Form
Form is how each section of a composition is set out in terms of chord progressions. Typically in a pop song, chord progressions will follow an A-A1-B-A1 form, with each section being 4 bars long to form a 16 bar progression.

Structure
Structure defines how a composition is made up (in terms of sections). Typically, a pop song will follow this structure:

• Intro
• Verse
• Chorus (repetitive, with a catchy hook)
• Middle Eight (also known as a bridge, usually 8 bars long)
• Instrumental (could also be a solo section)
• Outro/Coda

Each part of the structure will use a different form; for example, the verse will have a different chord progression to that of the chorus.

Inversions and Extensions

Not all chords used in a composition have to be in root position; it is possible to flip the order of the notes. This is known as an inversion. For example, you may want to invert a C Major chord (C-E-G) to either first inversion (E-G-C) or second inversion (G-C-E).

Extensions can also be used. This is when extra notes are added into a chord. For example, a C Major chord could be turned into a C Major 7 chord just by adding a B note in as well (C-E-G-B).

Genre
Genre dictates the style of music that a composition is. For example, this may be rock, pop, country etc.

Repetition and Difference 
Repetition is when certain elements of a composition are repeated throughout it. This may be:

• Melody line (this is known as an ostinato or riff)
• Chord progression
• Entire sections

However, it is also good to be different throughout as well (i.e. changing lyrics for new verses) as too much repetition will cause listeners to become bored.

Composer's Rights

Usually, composers will have master copies of their records owned by their record label. However, they are able to distribute their music through what is known as a publishing company. The composers agrees to hand control of their copyright over to the publishing company, who in return are able to:

• License usage of the composition(s) for other uses
• Collect royalties
• Monitor where compositions are used

As well as publishers, other organisations exists to obtain royalties for other reasons. For example, the Performing Rights Society (PRS) work on behalf of musicians and record labels to gain royalties for when the composition is performed live (i.e. in concert).

If someone wishes to sell a cover of a song, they must first get permission from the record label and publishing company to do, in the process agreeing to give royalties to both parties. In addition, a license must be obtained to be able to sell the cover. If the song is only being sold as a physical copy, a mechanical license will be needed. However, if the song is also being sold online/available for streaming, then a synthetic license will also be required.

If someone wishes to sample a section of a song, they must obtain clearance to do so, as well as lawfully obtain rights to the copyright for that song. In the past, there have been notable cases where artists have failed to do so, leading to court cases and lawsuits. Before the 1980's, sampling was done withoutA lot of the time, these are resolved by adding the suing party onto the writing credits for the affected track. For example, Tom Petty was added onto the writing credits for Sam Smith's "Stay with Me" as the song held a lot of similarities with Petty's song "I Won't Back Down".

Sound Design

Many compositions are created with the help of samples; these are short clips that can potentially be of anything, ranging from instruments to random noises. 

There are several ways which samples can be obtained and edited:

• Sound effects - these can range from reversing (playing backwards) to pitch shifting (changing how high or low the note is)

• Sampling from actual songs - many popular bands will often take samples from other people's work, then edit them with effects to make them unrecognisable. Other times, the samples may literally be like-for-like with the original song, maybe with a simple key change or EQ effect applied.

• Waveform manipulation - this involves manipulating the actual sound wave directly. Cubase allows for warp (time alignment) as well as pitch editing (changing the note being played)

Availability

Software inputs

Here is a list of software inputs I used for my composition:

• Lead synth (Sylenth) - this track plays a small melody during the 'verse' of my composition as well as during the outro
• Intro Chords (HaLion Sonic) - I used a different software synth to contrast with the lead line, and this track acts as a chord backing to it
• Chorus Chords (Sylenth) - I used Sylenth to contrast sound with the other chord track. This track plays the chords during the choruses and outro
• Bassline (HaLion Sonic) - unlike the bass guitar track, this bass line is synth based, and provides a backing to the synth chords

Analogue/digital inputs

• Guitar Lead/Rhythm - both of these tracks were recorded via mic'ing up a Fender guitar amp using a Shure SM57. These tracks were added to give more of a rock/new wave feel to the song, in combination with the synths
• Bass - this track was recorded using a DI, and provides a backing to the guitar tracks
• 4 clean guitar tracks (two chord tracks and two guitar harmonic tracks) - all of these tracks were recorded using a DI also, to contrast with the mic'ed up distorted guitar tracks. Two of the tracks provide a chord backing to the bridge and outro, whilst the other two tracks play natural harmonics, which adds atmosphere to the ending of my composition

Editing sources

• Bass drop - this track was created through heavy use of effects. Firstly, a short blank audio file was recorded, then ran through a sine wave generator to generate a note. Then, the 'pitch shift effect' was used in Cubase in order to drop the pitch, whilst fading was also used to gradually bring the volume down
• Freesound tracks - all of these tracks were mostly effected by my use of the trimming tools, in order to reduce their length to fit in certain gaps in my composition. However, some tracks (like the 'rain' track) were edited at the waveform, as I warped the length of the track so it would keep in time with the intro

Sound libraries

When composing my track, I made use of two sound libraries:

• Media Bay - this is the standard sound library that is included with Cubase. I used this library in order to create my drum tracks.
• FreeSound - this is a free online sound library that offers royalty free clips and sound effects. I made use of this website to add some different effects (such as the rain and "ding' sounds in the introduction.

Playback equipment

The headphones I used are the MV44s. These are a high quality headphone set, providing a very balanced sound for mixing.

File transfer

File transferring is carried out by dragging and dropping them into Cubase to import them. When finished, the final mix is exported via the Audio Mixdown feature.

Formats and Compatibility

When creating my composition, I used three main types of file:

• Cubase file - this was the project file that contained my composition, as well as other data such as effects applied and their setting etc. However, it obviously can only be opened in Cubase.
• MIDI file - these were used in my composition to store the synth tracks. MIDI tracks do not take up much room, and they allow for many parameters to be adjusted (i.e. pitch, length and velocity). However, they are mostly only useful when creating electronic instrument tracks, as they cannot accurately simulate some instruments (i.e. a guitar) without sounding 'computerised'.
• Audio file - these were used heavily throughout my composition (guitar/bass tracks, samples) and is also how my final mix down was stored. Whilst individual stems (instrument tracks) cannot be affected after mix down, audio files still have a good high range of ways to manipulate them (i.e. waveform editing and effects).

Copyright Issues

If samples have been used from commercial records, a letter must be written to the original artist's music publishing company as well as their record company asking for permission to sample their work and sell their recording with the sample in. You would need to take into account the methods that they would use to sell the music; if CD's were being produced, the band would need a 'mechanical' license in order to cover any physical copies being sold. On the other hand, if the music is being sold and streamed online (via services such as iTunes, Spotify and YouTube), a 'synth' license would be needed to cover all digital sales. Obviously, if both avenues were being used, both types of license would be needed.

Mixing and Mastering to CD

When mastering to CD, the mastering engineer should be using PQ codes. These contain information such as copyright data, track start and end data and copy protection.

There are several different file formats that can be used to store the audio data, with each having their own advantages and disadvantages:

• MP3 - this is considered to be the most widely used file format for audio. They are supported by practically every device that plays audio and have small file sizes. However, MP3 is a lossy format, meaning they won't be good for applications that require ultra-high quality sound, but they will still be practical for most applications.
• WAV - this is considered to be the best file format for mastering, as it closest to the actual waveform itself (i.e. without any compression). WAV file are notably large however, with each minute of audio taking up roughly 11MB of space.
• AAC - this is (for all intents and purposes) a higher quality version of the MP3 codec that takes up a similar amount of room, which has made it the better choice for many music listeners. Apple sells all music on iTunes in this format. However, a major disadvantage is that AAC is not as widely supported as other formats, due to heavy patenting.

Internet Distribution
There are several ways music can be distributed on the Internet. This includes:

• Streaming - users subscribe to the service (i.e. Spotify) and have instant access to a large collection of songs. Users can either pay for this service (i.e. for no adverts) or use a free service. The artist is then provided with the correct royalties, but in the past streaming services have been criticised for not doing this correctly, leaving some artists out of pocket.
• Video sites - artists often upload their music to video websites such as YouTube, whether they upload a music video or individual tracks. Some users have reuploaded other artist's music in the past in an attempt to make money off the works of others, but Content ID algorithms are now used in an attempt to stop this.
• Torrenting - this is an illegal process, but some often choose to 'share' music with other users for free.

Compression

This involves balancing levels of a recording (making louder and quieter noises the same volume and evening out frequencies). This can be adjusted to taste by several parameters, which include threshold (the volume level at which the compression is applied), ratio (how much compression is applied) and make-up gain (compensates for loss of volume whilst keeping the compression effect)

Loudness

When mixing/mastering, it is important not to have the master volume go over 0db, as this may lead to clipping (digital distortion).

EQ

This is adjusting the balance of different frequencies in an audio recording. This can be adjusted in the DAW via a graphic, where the user manipulates the waveform to select which frequencies they wish to boost or tame

Sonic Problems

As previously mentioned, it is important not to create clipping by having volume reach over 0db. This can be prevented by using a limiter, which stops any track reaching over a certain volume threshold. Other problems that may be evident in a poor mix may be too much compression, or EQ that is either creating a mix that is too gassy or too harsh sounding.

Link to audio: https://soundcloud.com/user-239608709/composing-using-music-technology